Sun Above the Horizon Meteoric Rise of the Solar Industry

The meteoric rise of the photovoltaic (PV) industry is an incredible story. In 2013, Google’s investments in PV systems totaled about half a billion dollars and Warren Buffet, one of the famous investors, invested $2.5 billion in the world’s largest PV system in California. These gigantic investments by major financial players were made only 40 years after the first two terrestrial PV companies, Solarex and Solar Power Corporation, were formed in the USA. Back in 1973, the two companies employed 20 people and produced only 500 watts of PV power. Now, just 40 years later, over a million people work in the PV industry. The worldwide capacity of operating PV electric generators equals the capacity of about 25 nuclear power plants. The PV industry is growing at an annual rate of 30 percent, equivalent to about five new nuclear power plants per year. Today, solar electricity is a significant supplier of electricity needs, to the extent that PV is forcing the restructuring of 100-year-old electric power utilities. This book describes how this happened and what lies ahead for PV power generation.

INTRODUCTION Act 1 DAWN 1972 - 1984 Damn the torpedoes and full steam ahead Cook book: how to make solar cells and modules Betting on horses The dawn of the terrestrial PV – solarex: the beginning and... ... Almost a premature end "chevron" solar cells The silicon enigma Silicon, the second most common element in the earth's crust The evolution of the terrestrial PV modules - the importance of testing and quality Dreamers and sobering reality Photovoltaic systems "stand alone" or "off grid" PV systems 1975 the year of change The importance of consumer business Micro-generators and … ... and a permanent bridge to europe The micro-generator mushroom resulting in a solar thin-film solution PV for the people Story about success and cash flow Water pumping with PV Navigational aids Amorphous silicon (a-si) the first successful thin film solar cell Act 2 SUNRISE 1985 - `999 Changing landscape The Big Oils’ involvement in PV Building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) and PV roofs Space applications used in everyday life: Communication Satellites and GPS Development of the global PV quality program World bank's trailblazing role for PV in developing countries Japan and then Europe take over the baton Three axioms that will shape the future of PV Does PV need government subsidy or can it be financed privately? Grass roots – common sense. Act 3 TOWARDS HIGH NOON 2000 – 2013 The winding road to the feed in tariff (FiT) A new silicon enigma and thin film PV alternatives PV becomes unstoppable "The Chinese miracle" (????) part one "The Chinese miracle" (????) part two Concentrated, tracking and the solyndra PV systems The PV rollercoaster The last barrier: "bankability"= proof of quality/reliability The effect of PV on the transformation of the electric utilities Energy independence and the wireless environment EPILOGUE …………………………………………………………..525 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ANNEX Annex - Metallurgical and polycrystalline silicon Annex - Float zone (FZ) and EFG processes Annex - Qualification testing of PV modules and PV standards Annex - Early photovoltaic pilot applications in the European Union Annex - US and Canadian coast guards solar modules for navigational aids Annex - Space solar cells conversion efficiency of light to electricity Annex - Satellite navigation systems in use or in development in various countries Annex - Regional PV manufacturing shares Annex - 25 year life prediction of PV modules Annex – PV GAP training manual covers Annex - China General Certification center (CGC) photovoltaic (PV) product certification Annex - Electricity storage systems INDEX

Dr. Peter F. Varadi escaped from Hungary in 1956 and, after a scientific carrier in 1968, was appointed head of the Communication Satellite Corporation’s (COMSAT’s) chemistry laboratory in the US. In this function he also participated in research on photovoltaic (PV) solar cells, which were used to power satellites. In 1973 he co-founded SOLAREX Corporation in Rockville, Maryland to develop the utilization of solar cells (PV) for terrestrial applications. SOLAREX was one of two companies that pioneered this field. In 1983, it was the largest PV company in the world when it was sold to AMOCO. Varadi continued consulting for Solarex for ten years, and after that for the European Commission, The World Bank, and NREL, among other organizations. In 2004, in recognition of his lifelong service to the global PV sector and his continuing commitment to strive for excellence in the PV industry, received the European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) John Bonda prize.