Handbook of Semiconductor Interconnection Technology SECOND EDITION

This edition reflects the continued evolution of semiconductor technology, describing the equipment used in manufacturing for deposition and etching, such as electrochemical deposition equipment used for plating copper. It emphasizes the measurement of mechanical and thermal properties as well as the use of EELS, energy filtering TEM, and atomic force microscopy. Expert contributors explore recently reported developments in thin film liners and barriers, choices for low-dielectric insulators, address major issues in processing, and cover deposition and etching of metallic films with a focus on electroplated copper. The book also examines the reliability of thin metallic and insulating films and features expanded discussions on copper reliability. Publications and patents are extensively cited throughout the book.

First introduced about a decade ago, the first edition of the Handbook of Semiconductor Interconnection Technology became widely popular for its thorough, integrated treatment of interconnect technologies and its forward-looking perspective. The field has grown tremendously in the interim and many of the "likely directions" outlined in the first edition are now standard in modern facilities. Reflecting those advances, this edition delves into the practical aspects of interconnections for manufacturing. It examines the interconnect and fabrication technologies now available, with an examination of future prospects for the field.What's in thisEdition: Detailed discussion of electrochemical equipment for plating copper Information on tools used for evaporation, chemical vapor deposition, and plasma processes Emphasis on measurement of mechanical and thermal properties of insulators Methods for characterizing porous dielectric thin films Greater focus on integration issues and properties of titanium, cobalt, and nickel silicides Process schemes based on the increased need for borderless contact gates and source/drain Expanded discussion on choices for low-dielectric insulators Concentration on electroplated copper, especially morphology of plated films and their properties Developments in thin film liners and barriers Expanded material on copper reliability

METHODS/PRINCIPLES OF DEPOSITION AND ETCHING OF THIN FILMS; Geraldine Cogin SchwartzIntroductionEvaporationChemical Vapor DepositionPhotoenhanced CVDPlasma ProcessingElectrochemical DepositionSpin CoatingConclusionReferencesCHARACTERIZATION; Geraldine Cogin SchwartzIntroductionOptical Characterization of Dielectric FilmsInfrared (IR) SpectroscopyResistivity of Metal FilmsThicknessDielectric Constant of DielectricsBreakdown StrengthAdhesionMechanical PropertiesThermal PropertiesAuger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): Also Called Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA)Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS)Electron MicroprobeX-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRFS)Hydrogen AnalysisRutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS)Specular X-Ray Reflectivity (SXR)Small-Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS)Positronium Annihilation Lifetime Spectroscopy (PALS)Ellipsometric Porosimetry (EP)Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)Focused Ion Beam (FIB)Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)Thermal Wave-Modulated Optical Reflectance Imaging (TW)X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)Wet Chemical MethodsChromatographyOther Analytical TechniquesThermometryElectrochemical MethodsPlasma DiagnosticsReferencesSEMICONDUCTOR CONTACT TECHNOLOGY; David R. Campbell, Revised by Catherine IversIntroductionImportance of Contact TechnologyElectrical Aspects of Silicon ContactsMaterial AspectsOhmic ContactsActive Device ContactsContact Studs for ULSIConclusionsReferencesINTERLEVEL DIELECTRICS; Geraldine Cogin Schwartz and K.V. SrikrishnanIntroductionInorganic Dielectric FilmsSpin-On Glasses (SOGs)Low Dielectric Constant FilmsBarrier Dielectric Film: a-SiC:HPorous Dielectric FilmsPlasma-Assisted Etching of Organic FilmsReactive Ion Etching of Low-e Interlevel Dielectric FilmsConclusionsReferencesMETALLIZATION; Geraldine Cogin Schwartz and K.V. SrikrishnanIntroductionAluminumAluminum AlloysCopperTungstenPatterning of Aluminum and Aluminum AlloysPatterning of CopperPatterning of TungstenStructure of Metal FilmsChapter SummaryReferencesCHIP INTEGRATION; Geraldine Cogin Schwartz and K.V. SrikrishnanIntroductionTopography, Step Coverage, and PlanarizationSpin-On FilmsStep Coverage by Deposited FilmsIn Situ Planarization/Gap-Fill of Dielectric FilmsEtch-Back ProcessesStep Coverage, Hole-Fill Planarization of MetalsEvaporationSputter Deposition of MetalsDirectional SputteringHigh-Density PlasmasBeam TechniquesFlowage of Metal FilmsCVD MetalsElectrochemical Deposition of CopperEmbedment (Inlaid) ProcessesChemical Mechanical Planarization (CMP)CMP of Inorganic Dielectric FilmsCMP of Low-e FilmsCMP of MetalsPost-CMP CleaningProblems with CMPImpact of CMPConclusions on TopographyRemaining Issues for Chip IntegrationProcess/Structure Choice ConflictsProcessesReliabilityManufacturabilityWafer SizeConcluding Remarks on Compatibility of Materials and ProcessingReferencesRELIABILITY; James R. Lloyd and Kenneth P. RodbellIntroductionThin-Film Interconnect ReliabilityBehavior of Thin-Film Conductors in Stress Voiding and Electromigration TestingElectromigration Behavior of Via ChainsCorrosionInsulator ReliabilityConcluding RemarksReferencesINDEX