ForewordPreface Introduction Heating of the PlasticMeans of conveying heat to the plastic Physics of radiation properties Thermal properties of plastics Heating equipment for plastic sheets Judging the correct temperature of the heated sheet Heater controls Clamping of sheets Thermoforming MoldsReduction in wall thickness, male and female molds Computer-aided engineering for thermoforming Part shrinkage and dimensional tolerances Warpage Draft in the mold Surface appearance Mold materials Mold-cooling provisions Air passage holes Increasing stiffness Mold plugs Vacuum, Air pressure and Mechanical ForcesMeasuring vacuum and pressure forces Vacuum sources Vacuum accumulators or surge tanks Application of vacuum forces Pressure forming Mechanical forming Cooling of Thermoformed PartsMeans of cooling the formed part Non-conventional cooling methods Trimming of Thermoforming EquipmentTools for trimming Thermoforming EquipmentSingle-station thermoformer Shuttle thermoformer Rotary thermoforming equipment Continuous in-line thermoformers In-line thermoformer Linear thermoformers Pneumatic thermoformers Hydraulically operated thermoformers Mechanically operated thermoformers Skin packaging equipment Blister packaging equipment Snap packaging Vacuum packaging Packaging machinery Control mechanisms Thermoforming-Related Material PropertiesGlass transition temperature Heat deflection temperature Softening range and hot strength Specific heat Thermal conductivity Thermal expansion Heat of fusion Thermal diffusivity Thermal stability Water absorption Orientation and crystallization Manufacture of starting materials Coextrusions and laminates Mechanical properties Material economics Regrind utilization Thermoforming Materials' Chemical DescriptionsAcrylics Cellulosics Polyolefins Styrene polymers Vinyl resins Engineering plastics Copolymers, blends, and alloys Fiber-reinforced thermoplastics Transparent materials Barrier materials Electrical properties Plastics recycling Flammability of plastics Toxicity of plastics Thermoforming ProcessesBillow, bubble, or free forming Cavity forming Drape forming Plug-assist forming Billow drape forming Snap-back forming Air slip forming Reverse draw with plug-assist forming Twin-sheet forming Pressure forming Mechanical thermoforming Other thermoforming processes Adjusting process parameters Thermoforming troubleshooting guide Design Considerations Assembly and bonding Rigidized thermoformed parts Finishing and decorating thermoformed parts Related and Competing Forming ProcessesForming processes performed at lower temperatures Packaging container forming Limitations for thermoforming AppendicesExemplary properties of thermoforming materials Exemplary properties of film materials Trade names and materials manufacturers Conversion factors Index
