The Enzymes of Biological Membranes Volume 2 Biosynthesis of Cell Components

A.- 1 Enzymes of Membrane Phospholipid Metabolism in Animals.- I. Introduction.- II. Type 1 Reactions.- A. Acylation of Glycero-3-phosphate.- B. Esterification of Saturated Fatty Acids to Phospholipids.- G. Hydrolysis of the 1-Acyl Ester in Phospholipids.- D. Other Lysophospholipase Activities.- III. Type 2 Reactions.- A. Formation of the 2-Acyl Ester of Phosphatidic Acid.- B. Esterification of Unsaturated Fatty Acids to Phospholipids.- C. Hydrolysis of the 2-Acyl Ester.- IV. Type 3 Reactions.- A. Diacylglycerol Kinase.- B. Choline and Ethanolamine Phosphotransferase.- G. Hydrolysis of Phosphatidic Acid.- D. Phosphatidylinositol Phosphodiesterases.- V. Type 4 Reactions.- A. Alcohol Phosphates for Phospholipid Synthesis.- B. Activation and Transfer of Phosphatidic Acid.- G. Exchange of Phosphatidyl Units among Lipid Classes.- VI. Type 5 Reactions.- A. Methylation of Phosphatidylethanolamine Derivatives.- B. Decarboxylation of Phosphatidylserine.- G. Formation of Diphosphatidylglycerol (Cardiolipin).- D. Modification of Inositol Lipids.- VII. Phosphorus Turnover during Membrane Stimulation and Permeation.- VIII. Acyl Chain Turnover during Membrane Stimulation and Permeation.- A. Membrane Activation and Mitogenesis.- B. Phagocytosis and the “Release” Response.- C. Platelet Aggregation and Release.- D. The “Slow-Reacting-Substance” Phenomenon.- E. Thyroid Stimulation.- IX. Microenvironmental Considerations of Accessibility of Membrane Phospholipids.- A. Peroxidation Effects.- B. Sidedness.- G. Gationic Proteins.- D. Fusion.- E. Exchange of Intact Lipid Molecules.- X. Origins of Lipid Species.- References.- 2 Microsomal Enzymes Involved in the Metabolism of Ether-Linked Glycerolipids and Their Precursors in Mammals.- I. Introduction.- II. Enzymes Related to Fatty Alcohol Metabolism.- III. Biosynthetic Enzymes.- A. Acyl-GoA: Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate Acyltransferase.- B. Alkyldihydroxyacetone Phosphate-Forming Enzyme.- G. NADPH: Acyldihydroxyacetone Phosphate Oxidoreductase.- D. NADPH: Alkyldihydroxyacetone Phosphate Oxidoreductase.- E. NADPH: Alkyldihydroxyacetone Oxidoreductase.- F. ATP: Alkyldihydroxyacetone Phosphotransferase.- G. ATP:1-Alky-sn-glycerol Phosphotransferase.- H. Acyl-CoA:1-Alkyl-2-acyl-sn-glycerol Acyltransferase.- I. Acyl-CoA:1-Alk-1?-enyl-2-acyl-sn-glycerol Acyltransferase.- J. Acyl-GoA: 1-Radyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (-Phosphoethanolamine) Acyltransferase.- K. 1-Alkyl-2-acyl-sn-glycerol:GDP-Gholine (GDP-Ethanolamine) Choline (Ethanolamine) Phosphotransferase.- L. 1-Alkyl-1?-enyl-2-acyl-sn-glycerol:CDP-Choline (GDP-Ethanolamine) Choline (Ethanolamine) Phosphotransferase.- M. Base-Exchange Reactions.- N. l-Alkyl-2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine Desaturase.- IV. Gatabolic Enzymes.- A. Alkyl Cleavage Enzyme.- B. Alk-1-enyl Cleavage Enzymes (Plasmalogenases).- C. Phosphohydrolases That Utilize Ether-Linked Phospholipids as Substrates.- D. Phospholipases that Utilize Ether-Linked Substrates.- References.- 3 Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase and Transport of Fatty Acids.- I. Introduction.- A. Metabolic Fate of Long-Chain Fatty Acids.- B. Role of Carnitine in Fatty Acid Oxidation.- G. Carnitine Ester Hydrolase.- II. Assays.- A. Use of Mitochondrial Oxygen Consumption.- B. Isotope-Exchange Method.- C. Direct Assays.- III. Mitochondrial Compartmentation.- A. Substrate Permeability.- B. Intracellular Localization.- C. Mitochondrial Localization.- IV. Purification and Characterization of Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase.- V. Substrate Specificity.- A. Carnitine.- B. Acylcamitine and Acyl-GoA.- VI. Inhibitors.- A. Acyl-d-carnitine.- B. 2-Bromoacyl Derivatives.- C. Atractyloside.- VII. Changes in Tissue Enzymatic Activity.- A. Increases in Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase Activity.- B. Decreases in Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase Activity.- C. Is Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase Activity the Rate-Limiting Step in Fatty Acid Oxidation ?.- VIII. Role of Carnitine in Acyl-Group Transport across the Mitochondrial Inner Membrane.- IV. Summary and Future.- References.- 4 Membrane-Bound Enzymes in Plant Lipid Metabolism.- I. Introduction.- II. Oxidative Systems.- A. ?-Oxidation.- B. ?-Oxidation.- C. Hydroxylation Systems.- III. Biosynthesis of Lipids.- IV. Desaturation Systems.- V. Complex Lipid Formation.- VI. The Chloroplast System.- References.- 5 Membrane-Bound Enzymes of Sterol Metabolism.- I. Introduction.- II. Methodology.- III. Enzymes Synthesizing Cholesterol.- A. HMG-CoA Reductase.- B. Squalene Synthetase.- C. Enzymes Converting Squalene to Cholesterol.- IV. Enzymes Synthesizing Bile Acids.- A. Cholesterol 7?-Hydroxylase.- B. Enzymes Converting 7a-Hydroxycholesterol to Bile Acids.- V. Enzymes Synthesizing Steroid Hormones.- A. Cholesterol Side-Chain Cleavage Enzyme.- B. Enzymes Converting Pregnenolone to Steroid Hormones.- VI. Conclusion.- References.- 6 Membrane-Bound Enzymes in Plant Sterol Biosynthesis.- I. Introduction.- II. Initial Stages.- A. HMG-CoA Reductase (EC 1.1.1.34).- B. Farnesyl Pyrophosphate: Squalene Synthetase (EC 2.5.1.1.).- III. Cyclization of Squalene.- A. Squalene Monooxidase (EC 1.14.99.7).- B. Oxidosqualene Cyclases.- IV. Formation of Sterols from Gycloartenol.- A. Cycloeucalenol:Obtusifoliol Isomerase.- B. S-Adenosylmethionine: ?24-Triterpene Methyltransferases.- V. 5?-Hydroxysterol Dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.62).- VI. D-Glucosylation of Phytosterols and Acylation of Sterol D-Glucosides.- A. Uridine Diphosphate Glucose: Sterol Transglucosylase.- B. Phosphatidylethanolamine: Sterol Glucoside Transacylase.- VII. Summary.- References.- B.- 7 Biosynthesis of Bacterial Cell Walls.- I. Introduction.- II. Peptidoglycan.- A. Structure of Peptidoglycan.- B. Biosynthesis of Peptidoglycan.- III. Lipopolysaccharide.- A. Structure of Lipopolysaccharide.- B. Biosynthesis of Lipopolysaccharide.- IV. Teichoic Acid.- A. Structure of Teichoic Acid.- B. Biosynthesis of Teichoic Acid.- V. Control of Cell-Wall Biosynthesis.- A. Control of Polymer Structure.- B. Control of Wall Composition.- C. Control of the Rate of Cell-Wall Synthesis.- References.- 8 C55-Isoprenoid Alcohol Phosphokinase: An Intrinsic Membrane Enzyme.- I. Introduction.- II. Purification and Properties.- III. Activation by Phospholipids.- IV. Activation by Fatty Acids.- V. The Model.- VI. Activation by Neutral Detergents.- VII. Biophysical Studies.- VIII. Conclusion.- References.- 9 Glycosyltransferases and Glycoprotein Biosynthesis.- I. Introduction.- II. Chemistry of Glycoproteins.- A. N-Acetylglucosaminyl-Asparagine Linkage.- B. N-Acetylgalactosaminyl-Serine (-Threonine) Linkage.- III. Biosynthesis of Glycoproteins.- A. General Aspects of Protein and Oligosaccharide Biosynthesis.- B. Sialyltransferases.- C. Fucosyltransferases.- D. Galactosyltransferases.- E. N-Acetylglucosaminyltransferases.- F. N-Acetylgalactosaminyltransferases.- G. Lipid Intermediates.- IV. Subcellular Locations of Glycosyltransferases.- V. Regulation of Glycosyltransferases.- A. Regulation of Oligosaccharide Structure.- B. Regulation of Glycosyltransferase Activities.- C. Sugar Nucleotide Biosynthesis and the Role of Activators.- VI. Assay of Glycosyltransferases.- A. Sugar-Nucleotides.- B. Acceptors.- C. Assay Procedures.- D. Product Identification.- VII. Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 10 Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus in the Biosynthesis of Plasma Glycoproteins.- I. Introduction.- II. Sugar Nucleotides.- III. Subcellular Sites of Carbohydrate Incorporation into Glycoproteins.- A. Glycosylation of Nascent Proteins (Site 1).- B. The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum (Site 2).- C. Role of the Golgi Apparatus (Site 3).- IV. Role of Lipid-Bound Sugars.- V. Secretion of Glycoprotein from the Liver.- VI. Factors Influencing Glycoprotein Synthesis.- A. Drugs and Natural Affectors.- B. Choline Deficiency.- C. Vitamin A.- D. Vitamin K.- E. Diseases.- F. Viruses.- VII. Regulation of Glycoprotein Synthesis.- VIII. Conclusions.- References.- 11 Alterations of Galactosaminyl- and Galactosy